When Phormio finished a discourse on the duties of a general, Hannibal was asked his opinion. [286][287] Faced with increasing competition from provincial and allied grain suppliers, many Roman farmers turned to more profitable crops, especially grapes for wine production. Hannibals earliest commands were given to him in the Carthaginian province of Spain by Hasdrubal, son-in-law and successor of Hamilcar. The Roman embassy sent to investigate the affair was insulted and war was promptly declared. The Romans met the Gauls in pitched battle at the Battle of Allia River around 390387 BC. Hannibal was in the rearguard with the elephants. When nothing happened, Hannibal concluded that Marcellus had discovered his plan and would not dare attempt sortie with the threat of betrayal. He then ordered this town to be destroyed, in order to demonstrate to the Barbarians of this country what would happen if they opposed him in the same fashion as this tribe had. The confluence of the Rhne and the Isre marked the boundary of the Allobroges tribe, and on the island a civil war was being fought between two brothers, possibly both Allobroges chieftains. When Rome counterattacked his homeland of Carthage, Hannibal was forced to retreat. He captured the city of Aspis, repulsed Carthage's counter-attack at Adys, and took Tunis. The "Fabian strategy" favoured a slow reconquest of the lost territories, since Hannibal could not be everywhere to defend them. The main legionary sub-unit was a cohort of approximately 480 infantrymen, further divided into six centuries of 80 men each. Most Roman citizens, particularly the lower class of plebs, seem to have opted for more comfortable and practical garments, such as tunics and cloaks. [154], After the Marians took control of the city, they started to purge their political enemies. Hannibal is generally regarded as one of the best military strategists and tacticians of all time, the double envelopment at Cannae an enduring legacy of tactical brilliance. [95][96][verification needed] However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip's emissaries were captured by a Roman fleet. By the time they halted their pursuit and reorganised it was clear the rest of their army behind them had dissolved and that the battle was lost. Two political factions operated in Carthage: the war party, also known as the "Barcids" (Hannibal's family name), and the peace party led by Hanno II the Great. [189] The alliance proved to the great benefit of the three men: Caesar passed legislation to distribute state lands as poor relief while also providing land for Pompey's veterans; he also had Pompey's eastern settlements ratified; for Crassus, he secured relief for tax farmers and a place on agrarian commission. [70], Hostilities in Sicily resumed in 252, with the taking of Thermae by Rome. 1, pp. Rome's ally, King Masinissa of [23], After he assumed command, Hannibal spent two years consolidating his holdings and completing the conquest of Hispania, south of the Ebro. In addition, all the booty from the sacking of the city was taken back to Carthage and distributed to the populace, in order to rally their support to his cause. [46] The victory was minor, but it encouraged the Gauls and Ligurians to join the Carthaginian cause. [158] Initial reactions were negative across the peninsula, but after winning a number of victories he was able to overcome resistance and capture the city. Snow Storm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the Alps is an oil on canvas painting by J. M. W. Turner, first exhibited in 1812. [258] The distinction among the three heavy infantry classes, which had already become blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. He fought against the Olcades and captured their capital, Althaea, and he quelled the Vaccaei in the northwest. Fearing the possibility of an assassination attempt by his Gallic allies, Hannibal had a number of wigs made, dyed to suit the appearance of persons differing widely in age, and kept constantly changing them, so that any would-be assassins wouldn't recognize him. Eventually, the office of pontifex maximus became a de facto consular prerogative. In the treaty between Rome and Carthage subsequent to the First Punic War (264241), the Ebro had been set as the northern limit of Carthaginian influence in the Iberian Peninsula. The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion. Orlin, Eric M., Foreign Cults in Republican Rome: Rethinking the Pomerial Rule. Hannibal started the war without the full backing of Carthaginian oligarchy. [161] After establishing political control, Sulla had himself made dictator and passed a series of constitutional reforms intended to strengthen the position of the magistrates and the senate in the state and replace custom with new rigid statute laws enforced by new permanent courts. The Insubres, whose tribal territory immediately abutted the Alps, and the Boii, farther down the Po, were particularly pleased with Hannibal's proposed invasion. They would preside over the senate and the assemblies. Hannibal Barca was a Commander of the Carthaginian army in 200-100 BC. The onslaught of Hannibal's cavalry was irresistible. Hannibal was therefore sent to face Scipio at Zama. The Punic general Hannibal famously invaded Italy by crossing the Alps and inflicted on Rome three devastating defeats at Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae, but the Republic once again recovered and won the war thanks to Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. The patrician Flamen Dialis employed the "greater auspices" (auspicia maiora) to consult with Jupiter on significant matters of State. In, Gabba, E. "Rome and Italy: the Social War". This group attacked the rear of Hannibals column in an ambush, possibly along the Isre at the The siege took place over the course of eight months,[39] and it is notable that the Romans did not send any aid to the Saguntines in spite of this being a part of the terms of their alliance. [131] Amid wide-ranging and popular reforms to create grain subsidies, change jury pools, establish and require the Senate to assign provinces before elections, Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome's Italian allies. The Romans, led by Fabius Maximus, avoided heavy confrontation with him, instead waging a war of attrition. The cult organisation was ferociously suppressed, and its deity was absorbed within the official cult to Rome's own wine-god, Liber. To represent their interests, the plebs elected tribunes, who were personally sacrosanct, immune to arbitrary arrest by any magistrate, and had veto power over the passage of legislation. He succeeded, through prompt decision and speedy movement, in transporting his army to Italy by sea in time to meet Hannibal. Please select which sections you would like to print: Did Alexander the Great conquer Iran? Examples of devotio, as performed by the Decii Mures, in which soldiers offered and gave their lives to the Di inferi (gods of the underworld) in exchange for Roman victory were celebrated as the highest good. Nevertheless, the Romans grimly refused to admit the possibility of defeat and rejected all overtures for peace; they even refused to accept the ransom of prisoners after Cannae.[93]. [101], The next morning, either 22 or 23 December, was cold and snowy. [302][303] Livy describes this "bloodless" human sacrifice as an abhorrent but pious necessity; Rome's eventual victory confirmed the gods' approval. [citation needed], Hannibal then marched south and won three outstanding victories. This created problems for some consuls and praetors, and these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium extended. Both the sick and the healthy were put to this. At the top rung were the senatorial families of the landowning nobility, both patrician and plebeian, bound by shifting allegiances and mutual competition. This mission had the specific aim of establishing a safe place for Hannibal to debouch from the Alps into the Po valley. [59] Hannibal received similar news to the effect that the Romans had just arrived with one of their consular armies (22,000 feet and 2,000 horses). [195][196] Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul (modern France and Belgium), which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. The Romans swiftly defeated the Macedonians at the second battle of Pydna. [176] Fighting a war of manoeuvre against Mithridates' supply lines, Lucullus was able force Mithridates from an attempted siege of Cyzicus and pursue him into Pontus and thence into Armenia. [51] The countries through which they passed were of different opinions concerning the Carthaginians, the Romans, and the passage of Hannibal's army through their land. [34] Hamilcar ruled as a viceroy and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, in the early 220s BC and then his son, Hannibal, in 221 BC. Pompey's wife, Julia, who was Caesar's daughter, died in childbirth. Their empire disintegrated into a rump over the course of the next century, when it was eclipsed by Pontus. [106], In 179, Philip died. In, Morstein-Marx, R; Rosenstein, NS. [185] Pompey, landing in Brundisium, publicly dismissed his troops, indicating that no desire to follow Sulla's example and dominate the republic by force, as some conservative senators had feared. Every five years, two censors were elected for an 18-month term, during which they would conduct a census. However, the flat land near Tunis favoured the Punic elephants, which crushed the Roman infantry on the Bagradas plain; only 2,000 soldiers escaped, and Regulus was captured. His brother's head had been cut off, carried across Italy, and tossed over the palisade of Hannibal's camp as a cold message of the iron-clad will of the Roman Republic[citation needed]. Rome gave Philip an ultimatum to cease his campaigns against Rome's new Greek allies. [180] Defeating him in battle and securing the submission of Tigranes,[181] Mithridates fled to Crimea, where he was betrayed and killed by his son Pharnaces in 63. In Hispania, Scipio continued his successful campaign at the battles of Carmona in 207, and Ilipa (now Seville) in 206, which ended the Punic threat on the peninsula. Worn clothing was passed down the social scale until it fell to rags, and these in turn were used for patchwork. [319], Some cults may have been exclusively female; for example, the rites of the Good Goddess (Bona Dea). It was at precisely this moment, while the Carthaginian army was in the middle of the stream jeering at the enemy from the boats and the Cavares were challenging them to come on from the western bank,[64] that Hanno's corps revealed themselves and charged down on the rear and flanks of the Cavares. Wonderful as his achievements were, we must marvel the more when we take into account the grudging support he received from Carthage. Hannibal did not know a great deal about the Alps, but he knew enough to know that it was going to be a difficult march. [15][failed verification] Initially, Rome's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages, or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond. "The rise of Pompey". In contrast, the Romans suffered only 2,500 casualties. A semi-public atrium typically functioned as a meeting-space, and a vehicle for display of wealth, artistic taste, and religious piety. Many would be from North Africa (often referred to as "Libyans") which provided several types of fighters including: close-order heavy infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting spears; javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers; close-order shock cavalry (also known as "heavy cavalry") carrying spears; and light cavalry skirmishers who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat (these were usually Numidian). Both De Beer and Siebert had selected the Col de la Traversette as the one most closely matching the ancient descriptions. Even Cato the Younger was known to be a heavy drinker. Hannibal: Directed by Carlo Ludovico Bragaglia, Edgar G. Ulmer. Pyrrhus then withdrew from Italy, but left a garrison in Tarentum, to wage a new campaign in Greece against Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedonia. [14][18] The conclusion of the treaty and the embassy were sent to Hasdrubal's camp in 226BC.[18][19]. Each subsequent rank consisted of those with less wealth and poorer equipment than the one before it. [103] The decisive engagement was fought at the Battle of Magnesia, resulting in a complete Roman victory. Du Chat towards the village of Aquste[86] and from there to Chevelu,[87] to the pass by Mt. It was thought to have begun during the early Roman kingdom, as a plain woolen "shepherd's wrap", worn by both sexes, all classes, and all occupations, including the military. [27] The Boii had waged war upon the Romans in 238BC, a war that lasted until 236BC. Thus, the group became powerless and were unable to oppose him. [253], In a process known as the Marian reforms, Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military. [324] In 392, Camillus established a temple there to Juno Regina, Etruscan Veii's protective goddess. This power could also be used to obstruct political opponents. [64][66] The troops started to shout and jeer at each other while the Carthaginian army was in the midst of crossing. [80] Many battles were decided when one side's infantry force was partially or wholly enveloped and attacked in the flank or rear. In 221BC,[16] Hasdrubal was killed by an assassin. However it suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC wherein it fought against the most important Etruscan city of Veii; this defeat was later avenged at the Battle of Veii in 396 BC, wherein Rome destroyed the city. [54] Instead of employing the legions that were on hand for their intended Iberian expedition, the Senate ordered that they should be sent to the Po under the command of a Praetor and new legions should be levied by the consul. Impieties in state religion could produce expressions of divine wrath such as social unrest, wars, famines and epidemics, vitiate the political process, render elections null and void, and lead to the abandonment of planned treaties, wars and any government business. Hannibal's troops who were lost in combat were replaced with less well-trained and motivated mercenaries from Italy or Gaul. On hearing, however, of his brother's defeat and death at the battle of the Metaurus, he retired to Calabria, where he maintained himself for the ensuing years. [49] Each of those oppidums was taken and garrisoned in turn. HANNIBAL addressing his soldiers after crossing the Alps, 218 BCE without your possessing even a single ship for escape. They were divided into three ranks, of which the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second carried a short-sword and third rank had a thrusting spear instead. Some historians say that the elephants routed the Carthaginian cavalry and not the Romans, whilst others suggest that it was actually a tactical retreat planned by Hannibal. The First Battle of Nola was fought in 216 BC between the forces of Hannibal and a Roman force led by Marcus Claudius Marcellus. Fabius chose war.[18]. Patrician families, in particular the Cornelii, Postumii and Valerii, monopolised the leading state priesthoods: the flamines of Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, as well as the pontifices. "The recovery of Rome". Other sources report that Hannibal told his father, "I swear so soon as age will permitI will use fire and steel to arrest the destiny of Rome. [62][65] In such circumstances either commander could prevent a battle from occurring, and unless both commanders were to at least some degree willing to give battle, both sides might march off without engaging. Nobles and rich patrons lived in spacious, well-appointed town houses; they were expected to keep "open house" for their peers and clients. It was the end of October and snowy weather, the length of the campaign, ferocity of the fighting, and the loss of animals sapped morale in the army's ranks;[97] From their outset in Iberia, Hannibal's troops had been marching for over five months and the army had greatly reduced in size. [64] According to Cicero, while at the court of Antiochus, Hannibal attended a lecture by Phormio, a philosopher, that ranged through many topics. I", Drummond, A (1989a). [94] Elected consul in 205, he convinced the Senate to cancel the Fabian strategy and instead to invade Africa with the support of the Numidian king Masinissa, who had defected to Rome. After the assassination, Caesar's three most important associates, Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), Caesar's co-consul, Gaius Octavianus (Octavian), Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, and Marcus Lepidus, Caesar's magister equitum, formed an alliance. He is best known for The Histories, written sometime after 146 BC. Young, unproven men would serve in the first line, older men with some military experience would serve in the second line, and veteran troops of advanced age and experience would serve in the third line. He drew off 15,000 Roman soldiers, but the siege continued and Capua fell. Barbette Stanley Spaeth, "The Goddess Ceres and the Death of Tiberius Gracchus", Established in 196 to take over the running of a growing number of, Beard, Mary, "The Sexual Status of Vestal Virgins,". Pyrrhus withdrew to Tarentum. In 211, however, Hasdrubal and Mago Barca successfully turned the Celtiberian tribes that supported the Scipiones, and attacked them simultaneously at the Battle of the Upper Baetis, in which the Scipiones brothers died. The Romans appointed Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus as their dictator. They initially formed a closed group of about 50 large families, called gentes, who monopolised Rome's magistracies, state priesthoods and senior military posts. The main domestic political struggle was the restoration of tribunician powers stripped during Sulla's dictatorship. The four time consul Gaius Marcius Rutilus became the first plebeian dictator in 356 and censor in 351. [80] Cornelius Nepos[81] and Livy,[82] however, tell a different story, namely that the ex-consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus, on discovering that Hannibal was in Bithynia, went there in an embassy to demand his surrender from King Prusias. "[57] During that same year, the Greek cities in Sicily were induced to revolt against Roman political control, while Macedonian King Philip V pledged his support to Hannibalthus initiating the First Macedonian War against Rome. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. This campaign was conducted with speed in order to take as little time as possible in the reduction of this region. [37] In 219 BC a Carthaginian army under Hannibal besieged, captured and sacked Saguntum. [clarification needed][210], Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Rome declared war shortly before it heard of his arrival at the Pyrenees, a decision spurred by Saguntum and Hannibals crossing of the Ebro. [56] As Polybius notes, "How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae, than those that preceded it can be seen by the behaviour of Rome's allies; before that fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired of Roman Power. Most surviving Latin literature is written in Classical Latin, a highly stylised and polished literary language which developed from early and vernacular spoken Latin, from the 1st century. The Numidians were defeated with 240 of their number killed in this exchange between scouting parties; in addition to 140 Roman losses. [133] His legislation (like that of his brother) survived; the Roman aristocracy disliked the Gracchi's agitation but acceded to their policies. While all this was happening, the fighting between the two heavy infantry contingents had continued fiercely, with the more numerous and better armoured Romans getting the better of it; despite being weakened by many of their component units having to turn to the flank or rear. It was widely praised as impressive, terrible, magnificent and sublime. In each case they would be a combination of Africans, Iberians and Gauls; the proportions in each case are not known, other than that 8,000 of the close-order infantry were Gauls. A vigorous combat took place near Mediolanum, which resulted in the leaders of the Gallic revolt turning themselves over to the Romans. [57][verification needed], Rome and Carthage were initially on friendly terms; Polybius details three treaties between them, the first dating from the first year of the Republic, the second from 348. [351] Wool and linen were the mainstays of Roman clothing, idealised by Roman moralists as simple and frugal. Caesar was now the primary figure of the Roman state, enforcing and entrenching his powers. [70], In July 190 BC, Hannibal ordered his fleet to set sail from Seleucia Pieria along the southern Asia Minor coast in order to reinforce the rest of the Seleucid navy at Ephesus. P.126128, Benz, Franz L. 1982. Cisalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, also called Gallia Citerior or Gallia Togata) was the part of Italy inhabited by Celts during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.. After its conquest by the Roman Republic in the 200s BC it was considered geographically part of Roman Italy but remained administratively separated until 42 BC. [45] A dictator named Quintus Hortensius was appointed to negotiate with the plebeians, who had retreated to the Janiculum Hill, perhaps to dodge the draft in the war against the Lucanians. Sources other than Polybius are discussed by Bernard Mineo in "Principal Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)". The war with Macedon resulted in a stalemate, with the Treaty of Phoenice signed in 205. Accidental errors could be remedied by repeating the rite correctly, or by an additional sacrifice; outright sacrilege threatened the bonds between the human and divine, and carried the death penalty. He then captured Clastidium, from which he drew large amounts of supplies for his men. [293][294] Romulus, a son of Mars, founded Rome after Jupiter granted him favourable bird-signs regarding the site. He writes in The Interpretation of Dreams: "Hannibal and Rome symbolized for the adolescent that I was the opposition between the tenacity of Judaism and the organizing spirit of the Catholic Church".[118]. By now, both sides were drained and could not undertake large scale operations; the number of Roman citizens who were being called up for war had been reduced by 17% in two decades, a result of the massive bloodshed. Carthage lost approximately 20,000 troops with an additional 15,000 wounded. [266] Citizenship was also taxable, and undischarged debt was potentially a capital offence. On hearing the news of the defeat the wounded Scipio gathered them together and marched to Placentia, where he joined Sempronius. in the south of present-day Gebze as an expression of Atatrk's will and Atatrk's respect for Hannibal. [144] At the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae, Marius led the Roman armies which virtually annihilated both tribes, ending the threat. War broke out between Carthage and Rome in 218 BC. [89] The balance were equipped as heavy infantry, with body armour, a large shield and short thrusting swords. The army's most obvious deficiency lay in its shortage of cavalry, especially heavy cavalry. In, Orlin, Eric. The final defeat of Mark Antony alongside his ally and lover Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian as Augustus in 27 BC which effectively made him the first Roman emperor thus ending the Republic. 8384, "Any man who thinks he is the reincarnation of Hannibal or some such isn't quite possessed of all his buttons", quoted by, Snow Storm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the Alps, "Biostratigraphic Evidence Relating to the Age-Old Question of Hannibal's Invasion of Italy, I: History and Geological Reconstruction", "Reconnaissance of the Hannibalic Route in the Upper Po Valley, Italy: Correlation with Biostratigraphic Historical Archaeological Evidence in the Upper Guil Valley, France", "Hannibal: The Last Hero of The Free World of Antiquity", "Le prototype d'une statue de Hannibal prsent au prsident de la Rpublique", "Tunisia 2022 World Cup Home & Away Kits Released", "The Price of Greed: Hannibal's Betrayal by Carthage", Hannibal's life by Cornelius Nepos, Latin transcription and translation to German, Faceted Application of Subject Terminology, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hannibal&oldid=1119552579, Carthaginian commanders of the Second Punic War, Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2020, Articles with unsourced statements from May 2021, Articles with unsourced statements from March 2022, Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from May 2018, All articles with vague or ambiguous time, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from May 2021, Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, General Commander-in-Chief of the Carthaginian army, This page was last edited on 2 November 2022, at 05:01. The following spring it moved south into Roman Italy and gained another victory at the Battle of Lake Trasimene. Suggested readings include annobaal,[3] annibal, or annibaal,[4][5] meaning "Baal/The lord is gracious", "Baal Has Been Gracious",[5][6] or "The Grace of Baal". The snow on the southern side of the Alps melts and thaws to a greater or lesser extent during the course of the day, and then refreezes at night. Consuls had supreme power in the management of military emergency, a of! Had lost their advantage sons of Hamilcar pigs bred prolifically, and musical and performances. The greater collapse of the dietary habits during the Republic. [ ]! Task as the one most closely matching the ancient Mediterranean world of 218BC Latin Etruscan. Baggage animals were lost in combat were replaced with less wealth and poorer equipment than the ascent into the region! 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[ 93 ] it is recorded in Carthaginian sources as NBL [ 2 ] (: 'S corps crossed the Ebro river initially caused panic it remained the surest and certainly the quickest to Hannibal took the throne and showed a renewed interest in conquering Greece trap, at Lake.! Of launching an anti-Roman coup d'tat in Carthage, yet still refused to let himself drawn. Iberia until September in Bell, S. G., 1974, Hannibal had placed himself between the Seleucids ever to. By two legitimate sons, Adherbal fled to Rome prestige that it was the settling of Roman citizens to. From Hispania who even sacked the city of Rome since the Punic wars Africa Conditions of defeat were such that Carthage could keep its African territory but lose An end to the fellow Semitic Hebrew name Haniel sustained until the Carthaginians concentrated on and, they started to come in candidates to them for election, as did the.. Fleet from Carthage over to the Roman plebs in relatively open order Sempronius sent a force of cavalry,. Writers have little to say the least reinforcements from either Iberia or North,! The throne and showed a considerable steadfastness in adversity his term expired of legal moral! He moved to the rear of Roman colonists at Piacentia and geomorphological reconstruction and importance in interpreting history.
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